There is no disputing that China prior to the Industrial Revolution was the world’s biggest and most powerful state. At the turn of the millennium, it had distinct advantages in technology, government, and organizational ability. After the Mongol invasions of twelfth century, China began 750 years of decline, culminating in 1870 when Europe began the unequal treaty era and carved China up like a Christmas turkey. What happened?
For one, military power. Chinese leaders feared military power after their experience with the Mongols, relegating generals to marginal roles. In particular, Chinese bureaucrats feared their own generals much more than foreign ones. This is in stark contrast to Europe, who craved military power and held their great generals in the highest esteem, primarily because Europeans were almost constantly at war with each other and greatly feared their neighbors. Europeans feared the next William the Conqueror, Charles V, or Napoleon, while China feared the Songs and the Qings.
Second, uncuriosity. While Europeans were fascinated by Chinese technology, the Chinese viewed European inventions like glass and muskets with disdain, even contempt. This may have been a result of being too good early on, as Chinese bureaucrats didn’t think they needed any new technology that made mining or harvesting crops easier, and thought studying the classics was the highest honor. There was never any conception for new organizational institutions like banks or universities, the Chinese bureaucrat simply thought investing and research were beneath him. Most importantly, this led to an extraordinary ignorance about the outside world.
Third, Malthus. Economic stagnation and using the same methods in 1800 to harvest rice as in 1200 but with the higher population meant China was in crisis. Caloric intake isn’t measured, but records show the average Chinese by 1870 was shorter than five feet. Improved European sanitation and eating meant their average height was around 5’6″ and finding men above six feet was not uncommon. Europeans who arrived in the mid-1850s also found a country crippled by peasant revolts and food strikes.
Perhaps the best example was the Taiping rebellion. For 15 years, Europeans came in their steam ships with modern cannons and better tactics, watching with bemusement and a growing confidence as incompetent Chinese bureaucrats led even worse armies in essentially mob combat against peasant villages. Perhaps 10 million people, 3% of China’s population, were eventually killed in the war, but the Qing dynasty emerged victorious, delaying modernization for another half century.